How to Diagnosis Structural Failure due to Ground Movement

Diagonal structural cracks indicate serious structural failure but, not all distortions and cracks in buildings are necessarily due to ground movement. Symptoms of distress can also be caused by inadequate strength of materials, inadequate structural togetherness, material decay, dimensional instability (caused by thermal and moisture movement), overall instability, alterations, misuse and accidental loads.

There are no foolproof rules for distinguishing between the causes of movement in buildings, and correct assessment can only be made with experience and by following good surveying practice. It is essential to be thorough; examine every part of the structure and every possible cause of failure; consult geological maps; record all individual symptoms; and keep an open mind. The most probable causes may be determined by a process of elimination. If symptoms are consistent with ground movement as well as other causes, further investigations must be made to distinguish between them, including trial-pits, boreholes, drain testing, and movement monitoring.

Diagonal Structural Cracks in Building at San Francisco

An Introduction to Tuned Mass Dampers

Various methods are discovered and some are used to control vibrations produced by earthquake or wind. These are modifying rigidities, masses, damping, or shape, and by providing passive or active counter forces. The selection of a particular type of vibration control device is governed by a number of factors which include efficiency, compactness and weight, capital cost, operating cost, maintenance requirements and safety. In this post I shall provide a preliminary idea about a damper that is successfully used and performed well against some quake in Taipei 101. This is Tuned mass damper.

Tuned mass dampers (TMD) have been widely used for vibration control in mechanical engineering systems. In recent years, TMD theory has been adopted to reduce vibrations of tall buildings and other civil engineering structures. Dynamic absorbers and tuned mass dampers are the realizations of tuned absorbers and tuned dampers for structural vibration control applications.

Tuned Mass Damper: The mass is attached to the building via a spring-dashpot system

The inertial, resilient, and dissipative elements in such devices are: mass, spring and dashpot (or material damping) for linear applications and their rotary counterparts in rotational applications. Depending on the application, these devices are sized from a few ounces (grams) to many tons. Other configurations such as pendulum absorbers/dampers, and sloshing liquid absorbers/dampers have also been realized for vibration mitigation applications. 

TMD is attached to a structure in order to reduce the dynamic response of the structure. The frequency of the damper is tuned to a particular structural frequency so that when that frequency is excited, the damper will resonate out of phase with the structural motion. The mass is usually attached to the building via a spring-dashpot system and energy is dissipated by the dashpot as relative motion develops between the mass and the structure.

Japan Trench : A Sorrow of Japan

Friday, March 11, 2011 at 02:46:24 PM at 38.297°N, 142.372°E location a devastating earthquake occurred off the coast of Japan. This quake was followed by a great tsunami. It was the most powerful known earthquake to have hit Japan, and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900. 

This earthquake on March 11, 2011, which occurred near the northeast coast of Honshu, Japan, resulted from thrust faulting on or near the subduction zone plate boundary between the Pacific and North America plates. At the latitude of this earthquake, the Pacific plate moves approximately westwards with respect to the North America plate at a rate of 83 mm/yr, and begins its westward descent beneath Japan at the Japan Trench. Here we will discuss japan trench earthquakes with reference to March 11 megathrust. Since 1973 the Japan Trench subduction zone has hosted nine events of magnitude 7 or greater.

Japan Trench

The largest of these, a M 7.8 earthquake approximately 260 km to the north of the March 11 epicenter, caused 3 fatalities and almost 700 injuries in December 1994. In June of 1978, a M 7.7 earthquake 35 km to the southwest of the March 11 epicenter caused 22 fatalities and over 400 injuries. Large offshore earthquakes have occurred in the same subduction zone in 1611, 1896 and 1933 that each produced devastating tsunami waves on the Sanriku coast of Pacific NE Japan. That coastline is particularly vulnerable to tsunami waves because it has many deep coastal embayments that amplify tsunami waves and cause great wave inundations. The M 7.6 subduction earthquake of 1896 created tsunami waves as high 38 m and a reported death toll of 27,000. The M 8.6 earthquake of March 2, 1933 produced tsunami waves as high as 29 m on the Sanriku coast and caused more than 3000 fatalities. Unlike the recent magnitude 9.0 earthquake, the 1933 earthquake did not occur as the result of thrust faulting on the subduction-zone plate interface, but rather within the Pacific plate just seaward of the Japan Trench.

So far we have discussed different Japan Trench earthquake, now we will know what is japan trench. 

Japan Trench 

Location: 

The Japan Trench is a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, in the floor of the northern Pacific Ocean off northeast Japan. This is an oceanic trench.It extends from the Kuril Islands to the Bonin Islands and is 9,000 metres (29,500 ft) at its deepest. It is an extension of the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench to the north and the Izu-Ogasawara Trench to its south with a length of 800 km (500 mi). 

Formation of japan trench: 

This trench is created when the oceanic Pacific plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate. The subduction process causes bending of the downgoing plate, creating a deep-sea trench. Continuing movement on the subduction zone associated with the Japan Trench is one of the main causes of tsunamis and earthquakes in northern Japan including the megathrust as discussed earlier.

Impact of 2011 Japan Megathrust on Fossil Fuels Energy Sector of Japan

March 11, 2011 the Great East Japan Earthquake was the most powerful known earthquake to have hit Japan, and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900. In addition to loss of life and destruction of infrastructure, the tsunami caused a number of nuclear accidents, primarily the ongoing level 7 meltdowns at three reactors in the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant complex, and the associated evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents.

Along with avove destruction and life loss this quake produced a gtreat impact on fossil fuel energy sector. A 220,000-barrel (35,000 m3)-per-day oil refinery of Cosmo Oil Company was set on fire by the quake at Ichihara,Chiba Prefecture, to the east of Tokyo, Along with avove destruction and life loss this quake produced a gtreat impact on fossil fuel energy sector. A 220,000-barrel (35,000 m3)-per-day oil refinery of Cosmo Oil Company was set on fire by the quake at Ichihara,Chiba Prefecture, to the east of Tokyo, It was extinguished after ten days, killing or injuring six people, and destroying storage tanks. Others halted production due to safety checks and power loss.   


In Sendai, a 145,000-barrel (23,100 m3)-per-day refinery owned by the largest refiner in Japan, JX Nippon Oil & Energy, was also set ablaze by the quake. Workers were evacuated, but tsunami warnings hindered efforts to extinguish the fire until 14 March, when officials planned to do so. An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as 300,000 barrels (48,000 m3) per day (as well as LNG), as back-up power plants burning fossil fuels try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan's nuclear power capacity. The city-owned plant for importing liquefied natural gas in Sendai was severely damaged, and supplies were halted for at least a month.

What is Japan Trench?

Location: The Japan Trench is a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, in the floor of the northern Pacific Ocean off northeast Japan. This is an oceanic trench.It extends from the Kuril Islands to the Bonin Islands and is 9,000 metres (29,500 ft) at its deepest. It is an extension of the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench to the north and the Izu-Ogasawara Trench to its south with a length of 800 km (500 mi). 

Formation of japan trench: 

This trench is created when the oceanic Pacific plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate. The subduction process causes bending of the downgoing plate, creating a deep-sea trench. Continuing movement on the subduction zone associated with the Japan Trench is one of the main causes of tsunamis and earthquakes in northern Japan including the 2011 Tōhoku megathrust.

Since 1973 the Japan Trench subduction zone has hosted nine events of magnitude 7 or greater. The largest of these, a M 7.8 earthquake approximately 260 km to the north of the March 11 2011 Tōhoku megathrust epicenter, caused 3 fatalities and almost 700 injuries in December 1994. In June of 1978, a M 7.7 earthquake 35 km to the southwest of the March 11 epicenter caused 22 fatalities and over 400 injuries. Large offshore earthquakes have occurred in the same subduction zone in 1611, 1896 and 1933 that each produced devastating tsunami waves on the Sanriku coast of Pacific NE Japan. That coastline is particularly vulnerable to tsunami waves because it has many deep coastal embayments that amplify tsunami waves and cause great wave inundations. The M 7.6 subduction earthquake of 1896 created tsunami waves as high 38 m and a reported death toll of 27,000. The M 8.6 earthquake of March 2, 1933 produced tsunami waves as high as 29 m on the Sanriku coast and caused more than 3000 fatalities. Unlike the recent magnitude 9.0 earthquake, the 1933 earthquake did not occur as the result of thrust faulting on the subduction-zone plate interface, but rather within the Pacific plate just seaward of the Japan Trench.

Japan Trench : A Zone of Megathrust

Friday, March 11, 2011 at 02:46:24 PM at 38.297°N, 142.372°E location a devastating earthquake occurred off the coast of Japan. This quake was followed by a great tsunami. It was the most powerful known earthquake to have hit Japan, and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900. 

This earthquake on March 11, 2011, which occurred near the northeast coast of Honshu, Japan, resulted from thrust faulting on or near the subduction zone plate boundary between the Pacific and North America plates. At the latitude of this earthquake, the Pacific plate moves approximately westwards with respect to the North America plate at a rate of 83 mm/yr, and begins its westward descent beneath Japan at the Japan Trench. Here we will discuss japan trench earthquakes with reference to March 11 megathrust. Since 1973 the Japan Trench subduction zone has hosted nine events of magnitude 7 or greater.

The largest of these, a M 7.8 earthquake approximately 260 km to the north of the March 11 epicenter, caused 3 fatalities and almost 700 injuries in December 1994. In June of 1978, a M 7.7 earthquake 35 km to the southwest of the March 11 epicenter caused 22 fatalities and over 400 injuries. Large offshore earthquakes have

Japan Trench

occurred in the same subduction zone in 1611, 1896 and 1933 that each produced devastating tsunami waves on the Sanriku coast of Pacific NE Japan. That coastline is particularly vulnerable to tsunami waves because it has many deep coastal embayments that amplify tsunami waves and cause great wave inundations. The M 7.6 subduction earthquake of 1896 created tsunami waves as high 38 m and a reported death toll of 27,000. The M 8.6 earthquake of March 2, 1933 produced tsunami waves as high as 29 m on the Sanriku coast and caused more than 3000 fatalities. Unlike the recent magnitude 9.0 earthquake, the 1933 earthquake did not occur as the result of thrust faulting on the subduction-zone plate interface, but rather within the Pacific plate just seaward of the Japan Trench.

So far we have discussed different Japan Trench earthquake, now we will know what is japan trench. 

Japan Trench 

Location: 

The Japan Trench is a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, in the floor of the northern Pacific Ocean off northeast Japan. This is an oceanic trench.It extends from the Kuril Islands to the Bonin Islands and is 9,000 metres (29,500 ft) at its deepest. It is an extension of the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench to the north and the Izu-Ogasawara Trench to its south with a length of 800 km (500 mi). 

Formation of japan trench: 

This trench is created when the oceanic Pacific plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate. The subduction process causes bending of the downgoing plate, creating a deep-sea trench. Continuing movement on the subduction zone associated with the Japan Trench is one of the main causes of tsunamis and earthquakes in northern Japan including the megathrust as discussed earlier.

Sears Tower: A Modified Tube Structure

A tube framed structure is a three dimensional space structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls, joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting lateral forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation. Fazlur Rahman Khan is the father of tubular design. . He has been called the Einstein of structural engineering and the Greatest Structural Engineer of the 20th Century for his innovative use of structural systems that remain fundamental to modern skyscraper construction. Tube-frame construction was first used in the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building, designed by Khan and completed in Chicago in 1963.

Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube. Horizontal loads (primarily wind) are supported by the structure as a whole.

Bundled Tubes in Sears Tower

About half the exterior surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted, with transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. Tube-frame construction was first

A variation on the tube frame is the bundled tube, which uses several interconnected tube frames. The Sears Tower in Chicago used this design, employing nine tubes of varying height to achieve its distinct appearance. The bundle tube design was not only highly efficient in economic terms, but it was also "innovative in its potential for versatile formulation of architectural space. Efficient towers no longer had to be box-like; the tube-units could take on various shapes and could be bundled together in different sorts of groupings. The bundled tube structure meant that "buildings no longer need be boxlike in appearance: they could become sculpture.

Offset at Bundle Tube in Sears Tower

Why Should You Live In A Skyscrapers of Several Hundred Metre High?

Craze of touching the sky is the instinct of human from the early age of history. With the invent of aero plane man has developed the new and safe structural and architectural techniques to keep standing a large building of more than hundred stories on the ground. Now-a-days World economies have been typically marked by iconic structures. Be it the Empire State Building which symbolized America's might in the early 1930s, to more recently the Petronas, Twin Towers and Shanghai World Financial Center representing the rise of Asia. To construct this tall skyscrapers vast amount of steel, concrete and glass are required which represent a great deal of embodied energy. Tall skyscrapers are very heavy, which means that they must be built on a sturdier foundation than would be required for shorter, lighter buildings. Building materials must also be lifted to the top of a skyscraper during construction, requiring more energy than would be necessary at lower heights. Furthermore, a skyscraper consumes a lot of electricity because potable and non-potable water must be pumped to the highest occupied floors, skyscrapers are usually designed to be mechanically ventilated, elevators are generally used instead of stairs, and natural lighting cannot be utilized in rooms far from the windows and the windowless spaces such as elevators, bathrooms and stairwells. With many of above disadvantages skyscraper provides some facilities: 

India Tower: A 125-storey tower in Marine Lines,
Mumbai, expected to be finished in 2016

1. Lower temperature: It is like living on a hill station ‐ The drop in temperature (DALR) is approximately constant at 9.78 °C/km (5.37 °F/1000 ft, or about 3°C/1000 ft) viz. The temperature at the top of World One will be almost 4.5°C lower than the ground temperature in the area. 

2. Lesser noise from outside: There is reduction in noise in buildings as we move up and the building and the variation noise is also less as compared to the lower floors. A difference of 30 floors reduces the maximum experienced noise by 30%. 

3. Cleaner air: A steady concentration decrease with increasing height of the concentration of automotive‐related pollutants, such as of PM10 airborne particulate, and of CO occurs in the immediate neighboring of the tower building. 

I. A decrease in concentration of particulates by 10 milligrams increases life by 0.61 years for a 7 year old child. 

ii. With the availability of cleaner air in upper floors, reduction of 20% in lung capacity can be avoided 

4. Better views and visibility: In clear atmospheric conditions, you can see to a distance of 50 kilometers from the top of the building of height 650 ft.

India - Disaster Management Vs Real Estate- the Need to Upgrade Buildings of 2002 Vintage and Older

This may come as a rude shock to many, but the reality is that buildings designed and constructed before 2002 do not even meet the minimum earthquake safety standards prescribed by the Government. The Indian Seismic Building Code was last revised in the year 2002 after many valuable lessons were learnt in the aftermath of the devastating Gujarat earthquake of 26Jan2001. There were many a committee set up to inquire into the lapses and suggest remedial measures; many international agencies pledged their support and the United Nations contributed both monetarily and by providing technical guidance. The Indian Seismic Code underwent a stringent upgrade so that future catastrophes could be averted. 

The loss of life and property was colossal and for some time the vast media coverage made one to believe that this was the “final wake up call”. As time passed the memories once again proved to be short lived and the “chatpatta” Bollywood news sold more and the mundane “Earthquake Safety” which was easily ignored especially when it was asking the people to do some thing which they have never done before, “protect themselves”.

The Government after great deliberations benchmarked “Life Safety” as the minimum safety standard that all buildings mandatorily adhere to. Life safety implies that in case of a major earthquake the total collapse of the building should be prevented. This would help in minimizing casualties. After the earthquake, in case the damage to the building was above a threshold level it could be demolished and rebuilt.
Approximately 59% of the country is vulnerable to earthquakes. The recent seismic activity in the Indian Sub-Continent, including the High-Intensity Indonesia and Muzaffarabad quakes, has rekindled fears at the highest echelons and many initiatives are being revived. The Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh himself, chairs the National Disaster Management Authority. President, Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, raised the issue of “the need to accelerate research for forecasting earthquakes” to “prevent heavy damage to the people and property” in his recent Independence Day speech. This is testimony enough as to the seriousness with which the Government is assessing the threat perception of increased seismic activity. With growing economic might, comes greater vulnerability and therefore the need for stringent safeguards.

However mere lip service on what should be done and followed would do little for the country to achieve greater earthquake resilience. Accountability should be the order of the day. Stringent legal provisions to enforce that at least the minimum safeguards must be followed. Public awareness is required to be created through mass advertising so that they can then take the necessary steps to upgrade their buildings. The present day reality makes this a necessity.

Cross Section of Damper

The Imperial pair buildings are the
tallest building in India

Today the responsibility of the Builder/Developer finishes once the possession is handed over. The occupants who are struggling to pay their housing installments are many times in no position to incur further expenditure on structural analysis/evaluation and seismic retrofit. Even if the actual retrofit costs are to be paid by the occupants the builders should provide their existing engineering infrastructure for seismic evaluation of the buildings constructed by them. Once the analysis is done the occupants would then know the expenditure required for upgrading the building to the present earthquake standards. 

In many developed and developing countries which lie in the seismically active regions, Building Insurance is mandatory especially high-rise construction. The insurance companies pitch in with quality control and ensure stringent safeguards before they provide the required insurance cover. As an incentive, in case, higher than the minimum safety standards are followed, the insurance premium becomes less, and in cases where even the minimum safeguards are not adhered to, the building simply does not get insured. 

Read: 

1. The Tested U.S. Base Isolated Building


2. Response of Base Isolated Buildings


3. Seismic Energy Dissipation Devices

Today there exist many earthquake protection technologies which efficiently and effectively protect structures against earthquakes i.e. dampers or energy dissipaters. These devices are also the most efficient and cost effective way of protecting buildings and have been used on many thousands of buildings around the world. One or the other building which incorporates this technology witnesses an earthquake each day. Ministry of Science and Technology is pitching in its bit by funding a research project for evaluating the effectiveness of such devices. These time tested earthquake protection technologies can be brought to India for manufacturing such devices, in case the Government facilitates funding. 

Black Cotton Soils in United States

In the previous post different aspects of black cotton soil and its distribution in India and Africa are discussed. Do you know the status of united states? This is not good one. Expansive soil mostly black cotton soils are present throughout the world and are known in every US state. Even though united states is motherland of different standards and development of enriched codes (ASTM, ASCE,ACI, AASHTO,FEMA,NISC, ANSI and many other) every year expansive soil cause billions of dollars in damage to infrastructure. The American Society of Civil Engineers estimates that 1/4 of all homes in the United States have some damage caused by expansive soils. In a typical year in the United States they cause a greater financial loss to property owners than earthquakes, floods, hurricanes and tornadoes combined.

Even though expansive soils cause enormous amounts of damage most people have never heard of them. This is because their damage is done slowly and cannot be attributed to a specific event. The damage done by expansive soils is then attributed to poor construction practices or a misconception that all buildings experience this type of damage as they age.

Expansive soils are soils that expand when water is added, and shrink when they dry out. This continuous change in soil volume can cause homes built on this soil to move unevenly and crack. Often, damage from expansive soils can be seen within the first few months or years after a home is constructed. Each year in the United States, expansive soils cause $2.3 billion in damage to houses, other buildings, roads, pipelines, and other structures. This is more than twice the damage from floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, and earthquakes combined.

Distribution of Black Cotton ( Vertisols )Soil in North America

Although expansive soils can be found in almost every state and in Canada, the problems related to expansive soils are the most severe and widespread in California, Nevada, Arizona, Colorado, and other western and southern states.

Tectonic Cause of Magnitude 6.9 earthquake of Sikim, India 2011 September 18

A magnitude 6.9 earthquake strike sikim, india on Sunday, September 18, 2011 at 06:10:48 PM at epicenter. The location coordinates are 27.723°N, 88.064°E. The hypocenter was at 12.2 miles depth. The epicenter was 42 miles north west of Gangtok, Sikkim, India.

Felt report :

1. 20 people have been killed in total.

2. 7 people have been killed in Sikkim.

3. 5 people are reported dead in Nepal.

4. 2 persons were reportedly killed in Nalanda and Darbhanga districts of Bihar, out of which one died in a stampede. .

5. 4 persons in total were also reported dead in Kalimpong, Jalpaiguri and Siliguri in West Bengal.

6. Two Army personnel were also killed in the earthquake.

Tectonics of Earthquake:

This earthquake occurred near the boundary between the India and Eurasia plates, in the mountainous region of northeast India near the Nepalese boarder. Initial analyses suggest the earthquake was complex, likely a result of two eventsoccurring close together in time at depths of approximately 20 km beneath the Earth's surface.At the latitude of the September 18 earthquake, the India plate converges with Eurasia at a rate of approximately 46 mm/yr towards the north-northeast. The broad convergence between these two plates has resulted in the uplift of the Himalayas, the world's tallest mountain range. The preliminary focal mechanism of the earthquake suggests strike slip faulting, and thus an intraplate source within the upper Eurasian plate or the underlying India plate, rather than occurring on the thrust interface plate boundary between the two.

This region has experienced relatively moderate seismicity in the past, with 18 earthquakes of M 5 or greater over the past 35 years within 100 km of the epicenter of the September 18 event. The largest of these was a M 6.1 earthquake in November of 1980, 75 km to the southeast.

Predicted travel times of P wave of Magnitude 6.8 Earthquake of SIKKIM, INDIA 2011 September 18

The map below shows the predicted travel times of the compressional (P) wave from the earthquake location to points around the world. Spherically-symmetric IASP91 reference earth velocity model are used to compute travel time. The travel time computed in minutes. The heavy black lines shown are the approximate distances to the P-wave shadow zone (103 to 140 degrees). The table below depicts  theoretical P-Wave Travel Times in tabular form.

Predicted travel times of P wave of Magnitude 6.8 Earthquake of SIKKIM, INDIA 2011 September 18

 Theoretical P-Wave Travel Times:

City	Distance (degrees)	Travel Time (min:secs)	Arrival Time UTC	Phase
Kathmandu, Nepal	2.45	0:38.8	12:41:26.8	Pn
Beijing, China	26.39	5:34.9	12:46:22.9	P
Tokyo, Japan	44.25	8:07.8	12:48:55.8	P
Moscow, Russia	45.46	8:17.4	12:49:05.4	P
Agana, Guam	54.48	9:26.0	12:50:14.0	P
Nairobi, Kenya	57.01	9:44.1	12:50:32.1	P
Rome, Italy	61.79	10:17.2	12:51:05.2	P
Bergen, Norway	62.79	10:23.9	12:51:11.9	P
London, England	67.78	10:56.2	12:51:44.2	P
Anchorage, Alaska	79.78	12:06.6	12:52:54.6	P
Brisbane, Australia	83.04	12:23.9	12:53:11.9	P
Honolulu, Hawaii	99.79	13:42.4	12:54:30.4	Pdiff
Seattle, Washington	100.01	13:43.3	12:54:31.3	Pdiff
Bangor, Maine	104.80	14:04.6	12:54:52.6	Pdiff
Wellington, New Zealand	105.41	14:07.3	12:54:55.3	Pdiff
Ottawa, Canada	105.73	14:08.7	12:54:56.8	Pdiff
Duluth, Minnesota	105.88	14:09.4	12:54:57.4	Pdiff
Boston, Massachusetts	107.69	14:17.4	12:55:05.4	Pdiff
San Francisco, California	108.85	14:22.6	12:55:10.6	Pdiff
New York, New York	109.91	14:27.3	12:55:15.3	Pdiff
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania	110.89	14:31.6	12:55:19.6	Pdiff
Golden, Colorado	111.75	14:35.4	12:55:23.4	Pdiff
Washington, D.C.	112.29	14:37.8	12:55:25.8	Pdiff
Los Angeles, California	113.69	14:44.1	12:55:32.1	Pdiff
St. Louis, Missouri	113.94	14:45.2	12:55:33.2	Pdiff
Wichita, Kansas	114.66	14:48.4	12:55:36.4	Pdiff
Albuquerque, New Mexico	116.01	14:54.4	12:55:42.4	Pdiff
Phoenix, Arizona	116.23	14:55.3	12:55:43.3	Pdiff
Knoxville, Tennessee	116.35	14:55.9	12:55:43.9	Pdiff
Miami, Florida	125.63	15:37.1	12:56:25.1	Pdiff
Brownsville, Texas	126.42	15:40.6	12:56:28.6	Pdiff
San Juan, Puerto Rico	127.72	15:46.3	12:56:34.3	Pdiff
Mexico City, Mexico	132.62	16:08.1	12:56:56.1	Pdiff
Palmer Station, Antarctica	136.57	16:25.6	12:57:13.6	Pdiff
Lima, Peru	159.13	19:57.7	13:00:45.7	PKPdf